Theories - Chapter 12

Chapter 12

Introduction:

It is important to understand that specific guidance strategies are theory based. Understanding a variety of theories and the strategies that have evolved from them gives teachers a secure starting point for devising developmentally appropriate child guidance strategies. You will read about three theories in this chapter from Vygotsky, Rogers, and Adler because they give us a good starting base at understanding and implementing positive guidance strategies for young children.

Learning objectives:

- Demonstrate an understanding of the major principles of the Vygotsky, Rogerian, and Adlerian models.

- Demonstrate an understanding of how an authoritative caregiver could choose any of the three models or even choose strategies from all three models.

- Describe major child guidance strategies used in each model and summarize the stance that each theory takes on the issue of punishment.

Body of the lecture:

Although Vygotsky’s life was short (he died at 37 years of age), he made a major contribution to child development theories.

Vygotsky’s theory ,as discussed in our textbook, focuses on three concepts:
1) scaffolding
2) zone of proximal development
3) adult/child dialogue or discourse

Scaffolding is a strategy where a teacher will change support as the child develops a new skill or competency. You can think of it as tiers or platforms one builds upon or adds to in order to reach higher levels of achievement. The child basically constructing themselves with each new skill they learn. Adults support and guide children’s learning. For example, a child who has a supportive social environment can forge ahead and build strong social competencies.

In child guidance, the teacher’s support changes during a discipline encounter. For example, the adult can assist the child through the process as the child is gaining new skills. The adult does this by offering suggestions and guidance that will, in essence, teach the child. The adult can reduce the amount of direct instruction when the child has developed a particular set of skills. This will help the child be self-controlled and autonomous.

Good scaffolding will assume three things:
1) Teachers/adults are active agents (intervene when appropriate)
2) Problem solving is the main goal (core to construct good social skills)
3) Good child/teacher or adult relationship (foundation for developmentally appropriate practices)

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the space where learning and development take place. For example, at one end of the zone is the child’s current ability and at the other end is what the child can learn with adult’s guidance. Any guidance strategy based on Vygotsky’s theory relies heavily on dialogue. Discussion aids in identifying and guiding actions and expectations. This will also foster a child’s private speech which can be described as the inner thoughts about situation, taking responsibility of it and identifying a solution for it.

See pg. 299 – Figure 12.1 which identifies some guidance strategies based on Vygotsky’s theory.

Rogerian Theory
This theory is based on the work of Carl Rogers who was an educational psychologist and teacher. A Rogerian therapist is non directive. They believe that you need to uncover the answers to your problems inside of yourself. Their role is to help you find those answers you seek. In child guidance it is believed that children have the capacity for self-direction and the adult’s role is to support the children’s efforts.

You will notice similarities in Vygotsky’s and Roger’s theories. Both state that:

children can develop or construct their own abilities and
they need competent, warm adults to support them



Rogerian based guidance is positive and helpful to the child. It allows the child to:
· be aware of feelings (positive and negative)
· perceive things accurately
· think for himself
· trust own ability to make decisions and problem solve
· accurately assess situations

Among Roger’s followers is Thomas Gordon. Thomas Gordon developed programs of child guidance called P.E.T. (Parent Effectiveness Training) and T.E.T. (Teacher Effectiveness Training). These programs were to teach adults specific guidance skills, and are the same skills used by professional Rogerian counselors.

Three strategies Thomas Gordon subscribed to are as follows:
Determine who owns the problem. Child or adult? (For example, ask who is upset, frustrated or cannot do something? Whose needs are prevented?)


Listen actively when a child owns a problem. (For example, ask “You seem to have a problem. Do you need help?) Allow the child to express themselves and feel safe and respected.
See pg. 305 Figure 12.4 – "How to Listen Actively"

Deliver an I-message when the adult owns the problem. An appropriate I-message is not accusatory. (For example, if the adult is frustrated due a child's behaviour do not accuse the child of misbehaving tell the child that you are feeling upset due to the behaviour. You can say, "Tommy, I get frustrated when I see you throwing beads all over the floor." Do not say, "Tommy you are bad for throwing those beads all over the floor!")

Four elements to good I-messages are:
- give observable data (see, touch, heard, smelt)
- state the tangible effects
- say how you felt
- focus on change

To practice you can complete the exercise on page 304 Figure 12.3

Adlerian Theory
Alfred Adler was born in Vienna. He attended medical school and developed an interest in psychiatry. Adler believed that each person is primarily a social being. He maintained that a person’s social environment and interactions were heavily influenced by personality development. His view was that people actively and consciously direct and create their own growth.

Adlerians believe that children play a large role in their own development and how they interpret and perceive their experiences is essential. Social beings need group memberships. Children fit into a group by adhering to their concept of rules for membership. Children can achieve a sense of belonging to a group through cooperating and contributing. In order to achieve that sense of belonging they must make accurate interpretations of the rules of group membership. If children have a pattern of misbehaving and not cooperating it is most likely due to inaccurate interpretation of events and people’s intentions. These children are ineffective in joining a group.

Having a mistaken goal of how to be a group member can be interpreted as:
· striving for undue attention
· seeking power over others
· hurting others through revenge
· displaying incompetence


STEP (Systematic Training for Effective Parenting) is a method used to teach Adlerian concepts and strategies to parents. Attention seeking behaviours are demands for undue attention. Getting the attention of others can be a mistaken goal for a child. Adults are typically annoyed or frustrated by a child’s attention seeking behaviour and they may respond to that child by giving in to or scolding the child. This clearly does not help the child. An adult can assist the child by changing how they react to demands for undue attention.

For example adults can try to:

- ignore inappropriate behaviours
- give attention to child when they exhibit appropriate behaviours
- encourage perspective taking
- acknowledge child’s bids for help

Struggling for power happens when the child has poor self-esteem and thinks that they don’t have control over things. Actively rebellious children will have tantrums, argue excessively, or be disobedient. Passive attempts for power can be seen through stubbornness, forgetfulness, or laziness. Adults usually feel angry or threatened with this power seeking child. Some adults will resort to punitive, hurtful strategies or engage in a power struggle, this will make the behaviour stronger. Adult reactions will determine if the child continues the behaviour. Children don’t need adults as sparring partners.

Adults should:
- resist the impulse to fight/argue with the child
- decide to respond differently
- decline the child’s invitation to fight/argue
- help the child by thinking through what the child needs

Children who try to get revenge exhibit hostile aggression. They feel hurt and angry and they want to get even. Children will expend a lot of energy convincing people that they are not likable. People generally feel hurt after an attack and will either retaliate or withdraw from the child. Instead the adult should resist by backing away, not retaliating and not taking the attack personally. Remember the child has poor self-esteem and needs help.

Displaying inadequacy or incompetence will occur when a child feels discouraged or believe that they are a failure. These children typically want to be left alone and hope to discourage others from expecting too much from them. This learned helplessness can be frustrating for an adult.

Adults will generally tend complete tasks for these children or point out the children’s errors and this will only amplify the problem.

The adult should be aware of child development and expect the child to complete tasks according to their developmental level. The adult should also instill confidence and problem solving skills in the child.

In summary:
An adult's beliefs have great influence on his or her actions. It is important to recognize your own beliefs about punishment and child rearing. If you take into account the various theories we have looked at you will be able to use the information to assist children who cannot help themselves when it comes to behaving appropriately. You have learned there are various skills that we can help children build and build upon in order to behave and feel successful.



CHAPTER 11

Introduction:
In this chapter we will discuss challenging behaviours. We will look at what the roots are for challenging behaviours and how we can minimize any 'hot spots' in our classrooms. We will also look further into why some behaviours are challenging for some of us but not for others.

Learning objectives:

> List, describe and explain the roots of a challenging behaviour.

> Explain why a challenging behaviour is in the eye of the beholder.

> Demonstrate an understanding of why challenging behaviours are hot spots in the classroom.

> Develop coping skills for children who are being teased.

Body of the lecture:
Your personal perspective determines which behaviours you will view and label as challenging.

Challenging behaviour can be classified as a behaviour that challenges the teacher's ability to guide the child.


Listen to the Voice of the Challenging Behaviour. It will tell you what the child needs.

Hot spots are times when a teacher might feel less confident, anxious or impatient with a behaviour that is occurring. The teacher may question his own methods of guidance because a typical guidance strategy, such as limit setting, might not be working.

Authoritative teachers are warm and understand child development. They use their knowledge regarding child development when guiding children. However, when faced with challenging behaviours that seem to have no resolution in sight, a teacher could feel irritated and then guilty for feeling impatient. Hot spots are also the times when teachers think that their focus has shifted from teaching to crisis intervention.

See Figure 11.1 on pg. 275 as it demonstrates periods of calm and cool times.
See Figure 11.2 on pg. 276 as it shows hot spots of challenging behaviour.


Roots of a challenging behaviour
The voice of a challenging behaviour speaks through children's actions. We can help the children by listening to what they tell us with their actions.


The four main roots of a challenging behaviour are:
developmental characteristics
unmet needs
lack of skills
factors in the classroom

See pg. 278-282 for more information regarding the roots of challenging behaviours.


Developmental characteristics:
↪ Memory, perspective taking, social cognition and brain development are involved in nearly every challenging behaviour.
↪ A child's brain development is in progress throughout childhood and adolescence. This development affects all other areas of development and has special meaning for challenging behaviours. (see Chapter 8 for explanation of development).

Perspective taking:
↪ Young children have difficulty with perspective taking.
↪ Social cognition:
↪ Young children tend to think about one thing at one time. Children will feel and express anger, but they cannot manage anger on their own.

Memory:
↪ Children who have learned an unhelpful way to do something will retain powerful images of that incorrect method.


Unmet needs:
"There is something I really need, will you help me get it?" Think about a child's basic needs: feeling loved and appreciated, safe, secure, physical activity, rest, nutrition, medical care, play, DAP environment, authoritative guidance... with a challenging behaviour consider what does the child need at that moment?


Lack of skills:
"There is something that I don't know how to do, will you teach me?" Some children do not have the skills they need to get along with others or function well. Children must learn how to be successful. Consider teaching the following: humane treatment of animals, obtain attention appropriately, how to join a group, how to make and keep a friend, how to work well with others, how groups function, how to start a project and work to completion.

Factors in the classroom:
"There's something in our classroom that's making it hard for me to do the right thing, will you please help me by changing this?" Teachers need to examine their practices (review, reframe and reflect).
See Figures 11.4 on pg. 282 and 11.5 on pg. 284.

Specific challenging behaviours and using the Decision Making Model of Child Guidance:
Please review pages 283-289 for examples of challenging behaviours and how to utilize the DMM. (Decision Making Model)


In summary:
As an early childhood educator it is a fact that you will be faced with challenging behaviours. It is essential to understand child development and respond to the individual when creating guidance plans and developmentally appropriate practices. Being aware of the child, the environment, and your own practices will ensure effective strategies are implemented. Remember to ask yourself "what is the voice of a challenging behaviour saying"?